How the US Court System Works: Federal and State Courts

The Two Court Systems: Federal and State

The US court system is really two parallel systems that operate side by side. One is the federal court system, created under the US Constitution to handle matters of national concern. The other is made up of the state court systems — a separate judiciary in each of the fifty states, plus the District of Columbia. The two are organized independently, hear different kinds of cases, and each keeps its own records.

In practice, the great majority of legal disputes in the country are decided in state courts: most criminal prosecutions, family and probate matters, contract and property disputes, and personal-injury cases begin there. Federal courts handle a narrower slice — cases involving federal law, the Constitution, disputes between citizens of different states above a dollar threshold, and a set of subjects (such as bankruptcy and immigration) that Congress has assigned to them.

How Federal Courts Are Organized

The federal judiciary is arranged in three tiers. At the base are the US District Courts, the federal trial courts, where cases are filed, evidence is heard, and juries reach verdicts. There are 94 federal judicial districts, at least one in every state. Above them sit the US Courts of Appeals, organized into thirteen circuits; these appellate courts review district-court decisions for legal error rather than re-trying the facts. At the top is the Supreme Court of the United States, which chooses a small number of cases each year and has the final word on questions of federal law and the Constitution.

Alongside these general courts, the federal system includes specialized tribunals — such as the bankruptcy courts that operate as units of the district courts, the US Tax Court, and the Court of International Trade — that handle particular subject areas.

How State Courts Are Organized

Each state builds its own court system, so the names and details vary, but the structure usually mirrors the federal three-tier pattern. At the bottom are trial courts, often divided into a general-jurisdiction court (which hears major civil and criminal cases) and limited-jurisdiction courts (for smaller claims, traffic, probate, or family matters). Above them most states have an intermediate appellate court, and at the top a state supreme court — the final authority on that state's own law.

The labels differ from state to state, which is a common source of confusion. New York, for example, calls its main trial court the "Supreme Court," while its highest court is the "Court of Appeals." When you are trying to find a court or its records, it is worth confirming what each level is actually called in that particular state.

What's the Difference Between Trial and Appellate Courts?

A trial court is where a case starts. It is the court that hears witnesses, receives evidence, and decides what happened — the finder of fact. A judge or jury applies the law to those facts and reaches a judgment or verdict. An appellate court does something different: it does not hold a new trial, hear witnesses, or take fresh evidence. Instead, a panel of judges reviews the written record from the trial court and the parties' legal arguments to decide whether the law was applied correctly.

Because appellate courts focus on legal questions rather than re-weighing the evidence, their written opinions are where much of the law is explained and refined. Those opinions become what case law is — the body of precedent that guides how similar cases are decided later.

Which Court Hears Which Cases?

Which court hears a case turns on jurisdiction — a court's authority to decide a particular kind of dispute. Two questions usually settle it. First, is the matter one of federal or state law? A prosecution under a state criminal code belongs in state court; a claim under a federal statute or the Constitution can go to federal court. Second, within that system, which court has authority over the subject and the amount in controversy? Small disputes may belong in a limited-jurisdiction court, while serious felonies or large civil claims go to a general-jurisdiction trial court.

Some cases can be heard in either system, and the rules on when a case may move from state to federal court are technical. The practical takeaway is that the type of law involved, the people or entities involved, and the stakes together determine the correct court — which is why the same underlying event can sometimes lead to separate proceedings.

Where Court Records Come From

Every one of these courts generates records: filings, dockets, orders, judgments, and opinions. Because the systems are separate, so are their records. Federal case records are maintained through the federal courts' electronic systems, while each state and county court keeps its own. That is why there is no single national database of every case — you generally have to look in the specific court, or the specific state's portal, where a case was filed. Our guide to how to look up court records explains where to start for each state, and you can always return to the Legal Journal homepage to browse the rest of our research guides.